http://hdl.handle.net/10090/692 Theses produced by Franklin & Marshall College students http://dspace.nitle.org/retrieve/1515 http://hdl.handle.net/10090/692 Search the Channel search http://dspace.nitle.org/simple-search http://hdl.handle.net/10090/5609 Title: Synthesis and Characterization of Carbonated Calcium and Lead Apatite Minerals <br/> <br/>Authors: Sternlieb, Mitchell <br/> <br/>Abstract: Apatites constitute a diverse family of minerals, which are found in the environment and as the major mineral constituent of bone and teeth. They have the generic stoichiometry M10(PO4)6X2, where M is a divalent cation and X is a halide, hydroxide, or carbonate. The apatite structure is vulnerable to ionic substitution. Substitutions significantly alter the physical and chemical properties of the minerals. Calcium and lead apatites of various carbonate contents were prepared in aqueous media by a method of reagent addition intended to yield apatites with maximized and controllable amounts of incorporated carbonate. The samples&#8217; identities and changes in crystallinities upon carbonation were determined by XRD, ATR-IR, micro-Raman spectroscopy, and petrographic microscopy. Carbonate content was determined by carbon elemental analysis. The data demonstrate that the synthetic method used is reproducible and able to yield calcium and lead apatites with up to 18 and 5 wt % carbonate, respectively. Moreover, structural data demonstrate that increased carbonate incorporation dramatically lowers the crystallinity of the samples. In addition, theoretical calculations, employing our simple salt approximation of the lattice enthalpy of complex minerals, predict that the solubilities of calcium and lead apatites increase with increasing carbonate. These results were tested experimentally using atomic absorption spectroscopy and Visual Minteq &#174; multiple equilibrium software. This work is among the first investigations of the chemistry of carbonated lead apatites, which have important environmental and biological consequences. <br/> <br/>Description: Franklin and Marshall College Archives, Undergraduate Honors Thesis, 2008 http://hdl.handle.net/10090/5606 Title: A Study of Hypercoordination in Organogermanes using 73Ge NMR Spectroscopy <br/> <br/>Authors: Agee, Tamara <br/> <br/>Abstract: Introduction Section I. Goals of the research &#9;73 Ge NMR spectroscopy has received minimal attention in previous literature due to the difficulty in observing the resonance of the nucleus, which has a low resonance frequency due to its low magnetogyric ratio and large quadrupole moment. The anisotropic interaction betweenthe non-zero quadrupole moment of the germanium nucleus and the electric field surrounding thenucleus results in a significant reduction in relaxation time. According to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle (AEAt = h/2it), the product of AE (the energy difference of the spin states) and At (the lifetime of a spin state, as measured by the relaxation time) must be constant. If the lifetime of an excited state is very short (as in the case of germanium), the uncertainty of energy must be very large. An uncertainty in energy is associated with an uncertainty in the frequency of a resonance, which leads to line broadening (an increase in half-height width). The anisotropic interaction is minimized when the electric field surrounding the germanium nucleus is symmetrical. For example, the electron density in a compound with tetrahedral symmetry is evenly distributed around the quadrupolar nucleus, thereby increasing the relaxation time of the germanium nuclei. &#9;A main group atom is said to be hypervalent if it contains more than 8 valence electrons. Hypervalency is a fundamental principle that applies to many areas of chemistry. For example,many crucial intermediates of reactions, such as phosphoranes, phosphonates, and sulfonium ylides, are hypervalent.l In this study NMR spectroscopy was used as a tool to probe hypervalency in main group elements-specifically the research examined if NMR spectroscopy is a valuable method in observing hypervalency in germanes. &#9;NMR spectroscopy studies of other group IV elements such as silicon, tin, and lead (elements with I = 1 / 2) show that an increase in electron density around the nucleus due to hypercoordination produces an upfield shift in the NMR resonance of these elements?"' In the case of germanium, hypervalency should cause an upfield shift in resonance and an increase in half height width due to a decrease in symmetry around the germanium nucleus. However, the literature reports conflicting results about hypervalency effects on germanium resonance. In one study by Takeuchi et aZ, , it is stated that only an increase in half-height width of germanium resonance is a good indication of hypercoordination. However, Kupce et aZ. reports the ~e NMR spectra of numerous hypervalent germanium structures in which only an upfield shift is observed. &#9;The present study was conducted in an attempt to resolve the discrepancies that appear in the literature. Two main goals have been identified: to study the hypervalency of organogermanes and to determine whether 73Ge NMR spectroscopy can be used to study hypervalency in organogermanes. These goals were accomplished by looking at both the intermolecular coordination of GeC14 and the intramolecular coordination of tetrakis organogermanes. In studying intermolecular coordination, the Lewis acidity of GeC14 can be compared to that of other group IV tetrachlorides. The series of tetrakis organogermanium compounds provides an ideal model for the intramolecular study because the apparent symmetry of the electric field surrounding the nucleus should produce sharp 73Ge resonances. Observationof a change in half height width due to a decrease in symmetry around the germanium nucleus and/or an upfield chemical shift due to an increase in electron density around the germanium nucleus would provide evidence of intramolecular hypercoordination. Molecular modeling wasused to confirm the presence of intramolecular hypercoordination in tetrakis organogermanium compounds. <br/> <br/>Description: Franklin and Marshall College Archives, Undergraduate Honors Thesis 2008 http://hdl.handle.net/10090/5300 Title: Conceptualizing Frozen Embryos: The Legal and Scientific Debate Over the Status of Human Embryos as they are Used in Reproductive Technologies <br/> <br/>Authors: White, Amy <br/> <br/>Abstract: This work represents the culmination of two semesters of research into the use of science in the legal system. My research specifically focuses on the invocation and application of the term &#8220;life&#8221; in expert testimony and judicial decisions. The cases I chose to study involve cryogenically frozen embryos as they are divided and conceptualized throughout divorce proceedings in the United States legal system. Within these cases, there is a rich legal debate surrounding whether the embryos in question ought to be considered person or property. The importance of this debate becomes apparent in light of current abortion law and the rapidly developing field of reproductive technologies. I include personal interviews with a number of the key players associated with these cases to get first-hand accounts of the importance of these cases and how they have affected our country&#8217;s legal system. In all, this thesis is meant to examine the current state of the ethical, legal and moral debate surrounding human embryos and their place within the current legal system through nine of the most important divorce proceedings that addressed cryopreserved human embryos. <br/> <br/>Description: Franklin and Marshall College Archives, Undergraduate Honors Thesis 2008 http://hdl.handle.net/10090/5299 Title: Municipal Public Health Failures and Socioeconomic Differentiation during Pandemic Influenza in Philadelphia <br/> <br/>Authors: Svider, Peter F. <br/> <br/>Abstract: The Spanish Influenza pandemic caused more deaths than combat during World War I, killing over 30 million people worldwide.4 Mortality rates were high both on the war front and back in the United States. Urban areas were hit the hardest; experiencing an initial outbreak in September of 1918, Philadelphia led American cities with over 8,000 deaths.5 This paper examines how factors such as gender, class, ethnicity, age and physical location within the city functioned to determine one&#8217;s susceptibility to influenza and access to healthcare. This paper also directly implicates the Philadelphia Board of Health&#8217;s sluggish response as the major contributor to the city&#8217;s elevated death toll. Philadelphia Board of Health Director Wilmer Krusen&#8217;s reluctance to act provided citizens with a false sense of security; a key example of this was his refusal to postpone the aforementioned Liberty Loan parade despite rising influenza rates. 6 The city agency did little to educate the public or control the spread of influenza until thousands had already died. This lack of preparedness is a prime example of public health strategies cities should avoid; findings from this research can potentially be employed by present-day city health agencies to prepare for future disease outbreaks in densely populated areas. <br/> <br/>Description: Franklin and Marshall College Archives, Undergraduate Honors Thesis 2008